MILL Wiki - User contributions [en]

File:FlowDiagram.PNG

2021-07-16T14:56:06Z

Amarin32:

File:Diagram.PNG

2021-07-16T14:55:57Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T20:39:19Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3D printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator <ref Name="Granulator"> Zealand, W. S. N. (n.d.). Plastics granulator. WorkSafe. https://www.worksafe.govt.nz/topic-and-industry/machinery/working-safely-with-plastic-production-machinery/plastics-granulator/. </ref>]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. <ref Name="Shini"> Calovini, L. (2021, April 20). Shredding vs. Granulating: What's the Difference? Shini USA. https://www.shiniusa.com/2019/02/27/shredding-vs-granulating/. </ref> These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder <ref Name="3devo"> 3devo. (2021, May 17). Why Should You Learn About Filament Extrusion? 3devo. https://3devo.com/blog/benefits-of-learning-extrusion/. </ref> |left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. <ref Name="Noztek"> Admin. (2013, October 7). How does a filament extruder work? - Noztek Extrusion Systems. Noztek Extrusion Systems. https://www.noztek.com/filament-extruder-work/. </ref> Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die and wound onto a spool for later use in a 3D printer..

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T20:26:27Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3D printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder <ref Name="3devo"> 3devo. (2021, May 17). Why Should You Learn About Filament Extrusion? 3devo. https://3devo.com/blog/benefits-of-learning-extrusion/. </ref> |left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. <ref Name="Noztek"> Admin. (2013, October 7). How does a filament extruder work? - Noztek Extrusion Systems. Noztek Extrusion Systems. https://www.noztek.com/filament-extruder-work/. </ref> Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die and wound onto a spool for later use in a 3D printer..

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T20:00:55Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3D printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder <ref Name="3devo"> 3devo. (2021, May 17). Why Should You Learn About Filament Extrusion? 3devo. https://3devo.com/blog/benefits-of-learning-extrusion/. </ref> |left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die and wound onto a spool for later use in a 3D printer..

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T20:00:43Z

Amarin32: /* Extruders */

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder <ref Name="3devo"> 3devo. (2021, May 17). Why Should You Learn About Filament Extrusion? 3devo. https://3devo.com/blog/benefits-of-learning-extrusion/. </ref> |left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die and wound onto a spool for later use in a 3D printer..

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:59:47Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder <ref Name="3devo"> 3devo. (2021, May 17). Why Should You Learn About Filament Extrusion? 3devo. https://3devo.com/blog/benefits-of-learning-extrusion/. </ref> |left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die.
== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:56:18Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder|left|500px]]
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die.
== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:54:20Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die.
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder|left|500px]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:54:06Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Rotor & Knife Type:''' Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|'''Screen size:''' 5mm
|-
|'''Cutting Chamber:''' 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|'''Bed Knives:''' 2
|-
|'''Rotating Blades:''' 9
|-
|'''Thru-put:''' 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
[[File:Granulator1.PNG|thumb|left|400px|A diagram of the internal mechanism of a typical plastic granulator]]

In a plastic granulator, robust cutting knives are mounted in a specific pattern on a open rotor that is spun at high speeds. Stationary knives are mounted within a cutting chamber at precise locations where they are allowed to come in contact with the rotary knives. As the knives come into contact, plastic scrap within the cutting chamber are cut in a scissor-like motion. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for further processing. Granulators reduce materials to much smaller sizes compared to shredders and even grinders, with sizes of 0.2 mm or lower being possible. These small sizes are made possible due to the open-rotor design of granulators that helps to facilitate the processing of lighter materials, compared to the closed-rotor operation of shredders and grinders The open-rotor functionality of granulators also means more air space is present facilitating product agitation and cooling. Granulators tend to require a more specialized feeding process, either by hand, conveyer, or robot, to avoid jamming, in comparison to shredders which do not necessitate as much oversight and can simply be fed material that has been dumped in the feed hopper.

== Extruders ==
Raw thermoplastic compound material in the form of granules is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives such as colorants and UV inhibitors are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper. The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic. It is then extruded as filament through a die.
[[File:Extruder.PNG|thumb|A diagram of a typical filament extruder]]

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

File:Extruder.PNG

2021-07-15T19:37:43Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:29:47Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:29:31Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:28:44Z

Amarin32: /* Granulators */

File:Granulator1.PNG

2021-07-15T19:28:24Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:08:24Z

Amarin32:

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:07:31Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|-
|Rotor & Knife Type: Solid/Staggered Cut
|-
|Screen size: 5mm
|-
|Cutting Chamber: 6.3"x8.3"
|-
|Bed Knives: 2
|-
|Rotating Blades: 9
|-
|
Thru-put: 76 lbs/hr
|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
A plastics granulator shears and smashes scrap plastic. Heavy knives are bolted to a rotor turn at high speed, close to a fixed anvil. Plastic offcuts from pressed products are loaded into a small granulator beside the press. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for moulding.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:04:41Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px
|- Rotor & Knife Type: Solid/Staggered Cut
|
|-Screen size: 5mm
|
|-Cutting Chamber: 6.3"x8.3"
|
|-Bed Knives: 2
|
|-Rotating Blades: 9
Thru-put: 76 lbs/hr|}]]

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
A plastics granulator shears and smashes scrap plastic. Heavy knives are bolted to a rotor turn at high speed, close to a fixed anvil. Plastic offcuts from pressed products are loaded into a small granulator beside the press. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for moulding.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Filament Recycling

2021-07-15T19:04:03Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Shini SG-16N Granulator
|-
|[[File:Granulator-062721.png|center|300px]]
|- Rotor & Knife Type: Solid/Staggered Cut
|
|-Screen size: 5mm
|
|-Cutting Chamber: 6.3"x8.3"
|
|-Bed Knives: 2
|
|-Rotating Blades: 9
Thru-put: 76 lbs/hr|}

Plastic Granulators and Filament Extruders allow polymers to be recycled for future use in FDM 3-d printers.

==Granulators==
A plastics granulator shears and smashes scrap plastic. Heavy knives are bolted to a rotor turn at high speed, close to a fixed anvil. Plastic offcuts from pressed products are loaded into a small granulator beside the press. Granules pass through a screen which limits their maximum size. Granules that fall through the screen are collected for moulding.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Contact Angle Goniometry

2021-07-15T18:49:21Z

Amarin32: /* Introduction and Applications */

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | ramé-hart 210-U4
|-
|[[File:WCA-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Sample Type''': Liquids and Solutions
|}

A Contact Angle Goniometer, or Water Contact Angle (WCA) Tensiometer, measures the static contact angle of a drop of various liquids and solutions and surface tension.
==Introduction and Applications ==
[[File:Hydrophobicphilic.PNG|thumb|left|A drop of water on hydrophilic (left) and hydrophobic (right) surfaces <ref name="WhitePaper"> Susanna, L (n.d.). ''Contact angle – What is it and how do you measure it?'' [White Paper] </ref>]]Contact angle, θ (theta), is a quantitative measure of wetting of a solid by a liquid. The behavior of a single drop on the surface of a solid tells you a lot about its properties. An obvious example is the application of different types of coatings and surface treatments. For example, if contact angle between the paint and the surface to be painted is high, that will lead to poor spreading and non-uniform coating. Contact angles can also be used to check if a surface treatment has been successful. Plasma treatment is often utilized to improve the adhesion between the substrate and the coating to be applied. The low contact angle between water and treated substrate indicate the success of the surface treatment.

To measure contact angle, place a drop of liquid is placed on the surface. Low contact angle values, i.e. below 90°, are related to good wetting whereas high contact angle values, above 90°, indicate poor wetting. When the contact angle is 0°, the surface is said to wet completely. If the liquid applied on the surface is water, terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic are used, respectively.
[[File:3phasepoint.PNG|thumb|Three-phase contact point where solid, fluid and fluid meet]]
The contact angle is geometrically defined as the angle formed by a liquid at the three-phase boundary where a liquid, gas, and solid intersect. There are three different forces acting on this three-phase contact point between solid, fluid and fluid

The <math> \lambda_{lv} </math> is the surface tension of a liquid, <math> \lambda_{sl} </math> is the interfacial tension between the solid and liquid and <math> \lambda_{sv} </math> is the surface tension of the solid i.e. surface free energy. The well-known Young´s equation describes the balance at the three-phase contact.

<math> \lambda_{sv} = \lambda_{sl} + \lambda_{lv}cos(\theta_y) </math>

The interfacial tensions, <math> \lambda_{sv}, \lambda_{sl}, \lambda_{lv} </math> form the equilibrium contact angle of wetting, many times referred to Young´s contact angle <math> \theta_y </math>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|meas]]

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-15T16:31:51Z

Amarin32: /* White Light Interferometry */

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. <ref Name="Nanoscience"> Optical Profilometry. Nanoscience Instruments. (2018, July 26). https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/optical-profilometry/. </ref> This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==
[[File:SPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|500px|Schematic of a stylus profilometer]]

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
[[File:OPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|400px|Schematic of an interferometric profilometer]]
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
[[File:WLI2.PNG|thumb|500px|Illustration of interference pattern on a sloped sample]]Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample <ref Name="Keyence"> White Light Interferometers. White Light Interferometers | Instruments Used For Roughness Measurements | Introduction To Roughness | KEYENCE America. (n.d.). https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/microscope/roughness/equipment/interferometers.jsp. </ref>. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===
* Capable of measuring a wide field of view: Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement: Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects: White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction: Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements: The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations: Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-06T15:47:21Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. <ref Name="Nanoscience"> Optical Profilometry. Nanoscience Instruments. (2018, July 26). https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/optical-profilometry/. </ref> This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==
[[File:SPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|500px|Schematic of a stylus profilometer]]

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
[[File:OPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|400px|Schematic of an interferometric profilometer]]
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
[[File:WLI2.PNG|thumb|500px|Illustration of interference pattern on a sloped sample]]Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample <ref Name="Keyence"> White Light Interferometers. White Light Interferometers | Instruments Used For Roughness Measurements | Introduction To Roughness | KEYENCE America. (n.d.). https://www.keyence.com/ss/products/microscope/roughness/equipment/interferometers.jsp. </ref>. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===
* Capable of measuring a wide field of view
** Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement
** `Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects
** White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction
** Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements
** The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations
** Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-06T15:21:22Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==
[[File:SPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|500px|Schematic of a stylus profilometer]]

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
[[File:OPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|400px|Schematic of an interferometric profilometer]]
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
[[File:WLI2.PNG|thumb|500px|Illustration of interference pattern on a sloped sample]]Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===
* Capable of measuring a wide field of view
** Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement
** `Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects
** White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction
** Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements
** The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations
** Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-06T15:14:03Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==
[[File:SPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|500px]]

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
[[File:OPdiagram.PNG|thumb|left|400px]]
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
[[File:WLI1.PNG|thumb]]
Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===

* Capable of measuring a wide field of view
** Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement
** `Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects
** [[File:WLI2.PNG|thumb|500px]]White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction
** Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements
** The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations
** Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-06T15:13:02Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==
[[File:SPdiagram.PNG|thumb]]

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
[[File:OPdiagram.PNG|thumb]]
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
[[File:WLI1.PNG|thumb]]
Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===

* Capable of measuring a wide field of view
** Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement
** `Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects
** [[File:WLI2.PNG|thumb]]White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction
** Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements
** The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations
** Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

File:WLI2.PNG

2021-07-06T15:10:57Z

Amarin32:

File:WLI1.PNG

2021-07-06T15:10:48Z

Amarin32:

File:SPdiagram.PNG

2021-07-06T15:10:39Z

Amarin32:

File:OPdiagram.PNG

2021-07-06T15:10:16Z

Amarin32:

Optical Profilometry

2021-07-06T14:29:10Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Profilm 3D Optical Profilometer
|-
|[[File:Profilometer-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Objectives''': 10x, 20x, 50x
|-
|'''Surface Roughness Resolution''': 0.05μm
|}

The Profilm 3D optical profilometer uses white light interferometry to measure surface profiles and roughness. It has 10x, 20x, and 50x objectives that can resolve surface roughness down to 0.05 μm.

== Introduction ==
Profilometry is a technique used to extract topographical data from a surface. This can be a single point, a line scan or even a full three dimensional scan. The purpose of profilometry is to get surface morphology, step heights and surface roughness. This can be done using a physical probe or by using light. Metrology is the science of measurement. How rough is the sample? How high are the features? How much of the area has voids or particles? What is the defect density? Answers to these questions are often quantified using profilometry. All profilometers consist of at least two parts – a detector and a sample stage. The detector is what determines where the points on the sample are and the sample stage is what holds the sample. In some systems, the sample stage moves to allow for measurement while in others the detector moves. There are also instruments where both the sample stage and detector move.

== Principle ==

=== Stylus Profilometry ===
Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically moving a probe along the surface in order to acquire the surface height. This is done mechanically with a feedback loop that monitors the force from the sample pushing up against the probe as it scans along the surface. A feedback system is used to keep the arm with a specific amount of torque on it, known as the ‘setpoint’. The changes in the Z position of the arm holder can then be used to reconstruct the surface. Stylus profilometry requires force feedback and physically touching the surface, so while it is extremely sensitive and provides high Z resolution, it is sensitive to soft surfaces and the probe can become contaminated by the surface. This technique can also be destructive to some surfaces. Because a stylus profilometer involves physical movements in X, Y and Z while maintaining contact with the surface, it is slower than non-contact techniques. The stylus tip size and shape can influence the measurements and limit the lateral resolution.

=== Optical Profilometry ===
Optical profilometry uses light instead of a physical probe. This can be done a number of ways. The key component to this technique is directing the light in a way that it can detect the surface in 3D. Examples include optical interference, using a confocal aperture, focus and phase detection, and projecting a pattern onto the optical image.

== White Light Interferometry ==
Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain point; a white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the surface roughness of a sample. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the reference beam is passed through the reference mirror through a half mirror, the measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forms an image through the CCD image sensor. The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal, which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

=== Advantages ===

* Capable of measuring a wide field of view
** Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.
* Quick measurement
** `Approximately 20 seconds compared to much longer for a stylus profilometer.

=== Disadvantages ===

* No or limited angular characteristic
* Use is limited on certain objects
** White light interferometers can only measure when there is a good reflection. There, it does not support measurement capabilities on a wide variety of objects. Measurements may also not be possible when there is a significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and light reflected from the measurement area. (White light interferometers handle mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or nonreflective parts.
* Requires tilt correction
** Prior to measuring, sample tilt correction must be performed using a goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced interference patters, which hinder measurement accuracy. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that automatically corrects the sample tilt.
* Low resolution for XY stage measurements
** The resolution for XY stage measurements are low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.
* Sensitive to vibrations
** Place of installation is limited due to the equipment’s high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

[[Category:Equipment|char]]

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T16:14:04Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|left|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.
== Principle ==
[[File:SLAPrinciple.PNG|thumb|left|500px|Diagram showing how SLA printing builds layers]]
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==
[[File:SLAvSFDM.PNG|thumb|While FDM 3D printed parts tend to have visible layer lines and might show inaccuracies around complex features, parts printed on SLA machines have sharp edges, a smooth surface finish, and minimal visible layer lines.]]
=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T16:13:43Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|left|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.
== Principle ==
[[File:SLAPrinciple.PNG|thumb|left|500px|Diagram showing how SLA printing builds layers]]
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
[[File:SLAvSFDM.PNG|thumb|While FDM 3D printed parts tend to have visible layer lines and might show inaccuracies around complex features, parts printed on SLA machines have sharp edges, a smooth surface finish, and minimal visible layer lines.]]
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T16:13:24Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|left|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.
== Principle ==
[[File:SLAPrinciple.PNG|thumb|Diagram showing how SLA printing builds layers]]
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
[[File:SLAvSFDM.PNG|thumb|While FDM 3D printed parts tend to have visible layer lines and might show inaccuracies around complex features, parts printed on SLA machines have sharp edges, a smooth surface finish, and minimal visible layer lines.]]
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T16:11:30Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|left|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
== Principle ==
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

File:SLAvSFDM.PNG

2021-07-02T16:11:17Z

Amarin32:

File:SLAPrinciple.PNG

2021-07-02T16:11:07Z

Amarin32:

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:52:39Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|left|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:52:26Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
[[File:SLADiagram.PNG|thumb|Diagram of the key parts of a typical desktop SLA printer]]
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

File:SLADiagram.PNG

2021-07-02T15:51:34Z

Amarin32:

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:50:19Z

Amarin32: /* Principle */

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP"> All3DP. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:49:59Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing<ref Name="Formlabs"> Formlabs. (n.d.). The Ultimate Guide to Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printing. https://formlabs.com/blog/ultimate-guide-to-stereolithography-sla-3d-printing/. </ref>. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin<ref Name="All3DP" All3DP>. (2020, September 16). Stereolithography / SLA 3D Printing – Simply Explained. https://all3dp.com/2/stereolithography-3d-printing-simply-explained/. </ref>. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

== References ==
<references />

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:46:14Z

Amarin32:

{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
== Introduction ==
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Stereolithography (SLA)

2021-07-02T15:45:39Z

Amarin32:

== Introduction ==
{|class="infobox"
!style="font-size:135%;text-align:center;" | Prusa SL1 Resin Printer and CW1 Curing & Waching Machine
|-
|[[File:ResinPrinter-052621.png|center|300px]]
|-
|'''Resin Types''': Prusa Tough (Orange, Black)
|}
Stereolithography (SLA) belongs to a family of additive manufacturing technologies known as vat photopolymerization, commonly known as resin 3D printing. These machines are all built around the same principle, using a light source—a laser or projector—to cure liquid resin into hardened plastic. The main physical differentiation lies in the arrangement of the core components, such as the light source, the build platform, and the resin tank. SLA 3D printers use light-reactive thermoset materials called “resin.” When SLA resins are exposed to certain wavelengths of light, short molecular chains join together, polymerizing monomers and oligomers into solidified rigid or flexible geometries. SLA parts have the highest resolution and accuracy, the sharpest details, and the smoothest surface finishes of all 3D printing technologies, but the main benefit of the stereolithography lies in its versatility. Material manufacturers have created innovative SLA resin formulations with a wide range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial thermoplastics.

== Principle ==
When the process starts, an ultraviolet laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the photosensitive resin. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror. Most desktop SLA printers work upside-down. That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally raised. After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion. The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused. After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

== Why Choose SLA 3D Printing? ==

=== Isotropy ===
Because 3D printing creates parts one layer at a time, completed prints may have variations in strength based on orientation of the part relative to the printing process, with different properties in X, Y, and Z axes. Extrusion-based 3D printing processes like fused deposition modeling (FDM) are known for being anisotropic due to layer-to-layer differences created by the print process. This anisotropy limits the usefulness of FDM for certain applications, or requires more adjustments on the part geometry side to compensate for it. In contrast, SLA resin 3D printers create highly isotropic parts. Achieving part isotropy is based on a number of factors that can be tightly controlled by integrating material chemistry with the print process. During printing, resin components form covalent bonds, but layer to layer, the part remains in a semi-reacted “green state.” While in the green state, the resin retains polymerizable groups that can form bonds across layers, imparting isotropy and watertightness to the part upon final cure. On the molecular level, there is no difference between X, Y, or Z planes. This results in parts with predictable mechanical performance critical for applications like jigs and fixtures, end-use parts, and functional prototyping.

=== Watertightness ===
SLA printed objects are continuous, whether producing geometries with solid features or internal channels. This watertightness is important for engineering and manufacturing applications where air or fluid flow must be controlled and predictable. Engineers and designers use the watertightness of SLA printers to solve air and fluid flow challenges for automotive uses, biomedical research, and to validate part designs for consumer products like kitchen appliances.

=== Accuracy and Precision ===
Industries from dental to manufacturing depend on SLA 3D printing to repeatedly create accurate, precise components. For a print process to produce accurate and precise parts, multiple factors must be tightly controlled. The combination of the heated resin tank and the closed build environment provides almost identical conditions for each print. Better accuracy is also a function of lower printing temperature compared to thermoplastic-based technologies that melt the raw material. Because stereolithography uses light instead of heat, the printing process takes place at close to room temperature, and printed parts don't suffer from thermal expansion and contraction artifacts.

=== Fine Features and Smooth Surface Finish ===
SLA printers are considered the gold standard for smooth surface finish, with appearances comparable to traditional manufacturing methods like machining, injection molding, and extrusion. This surface quality is ideal for applications that require a flawless finish and also helps reduce post-processing time, since parts can easily be sanded, polished, and painted. In comparison, FDM and SLS printers typically print Z-axis layers at 100 to 300 microns. However, a part printed at 100 microns on an FDM or SLS printer looks different from a part printed at 100 microns on an SLA printer. SLA prints have a smoother surface finish right out of the printer, because the outermost perimeter walls are straight, and the newly printed layer interacts with the previous layer, smoothing out the staircase effect. FDM prints tend to have clearly visible layers, whereas SLS has a grainy surface from the sintered powder. The smallest possible detail is also much finer on SLA, given 85 micron laser spot size on a high end desktop model, in comparison with 350 microns on industrial SLS printers, and 250–800 micron nozzles on FDM machines.

=== Material Versatility ===
SLA resins have the benefit of a wide range of formulation configurations: materials can be soft or hard, heavily filled with secondary materials like glass and ceramic, or imbued with mechanical properties like high heat deflection temperature or impact resistance. Material range from industry-specific, like dentures, to those that closely match final materials for prototyping, formulated to withstand extensive testing and perform under stress. In some cases, its this combination of versatility and functionality that leads to companies to initially bring resin 3D printing in-house. After finding one application solved by a specific functional material, it’s usually not long before more possibilities are uncovered, and the printer becomes a tool for leveraging the diverse capabilities of various materials.
[[Category:Equipment|proc]]

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:25:44Z

Amarin32: /* Infrared */

== Light as Waves ==
[[File:Spectrum.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of the electromagnetic spectrum]]
Physicists describe light as something called electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave <ref name="CESAR"> CESAR. (n.d.). The electromagnetic spectrum Cesar's Booklets. </ref>. The word radiation means ‘energy that is transported from one spot to another without need of direct contact between the two locations’. Light in each of these colors carries a different amount of energy: gamma rays are the most energetic, and radio is the least. Thus, when we observe gamma or X-rays from an astronomical object, we know that something really powerful is happening there. This energy is transported in the form of a wave, and each color is related to a different wave size: The more energy the wave carries, the narrower it is –or, in technical terms, the shorter its wavelength. Hence, X-rays have shorter wavelengths than visible-light waves, and visible light has shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

== Properties of Waves ==
[[File:Wave.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of a wave]]
A wave is a periodic perturbation from an undisturbed or rest state that is transmitted in space. The maximum deviation from this undisturbed state is called the amplitude of the wave, and is a measure of the intensity of the perturbation; the top of the wave is called a crest and the lowest state, a trough. Waves are characterized by their size, measured as the distance between two equal states; this distance is called the wavelength, <math> \lambda </math>. The colors of visible light are the way our eyes perceive the different wavelengths. The time it takes for the perturbation to move one wavelength –in other words, to repeat itself–, is called the period of the wave, <math> P </math>. Wavelength and period are related through the speed of the wave, <math> c </math> <math> (≈3*10^8 m/s) </math>, because speed is defined as space travelled per unit time:

<math> c = \frac{\lambda}{P} </math>

The number of complete cycles –the number of times the wave repeats itself– in one second is called the frequency of the wave, <math> f </math>. Thus, the frequency is the inverse of the period, and is also related to the wavelength through the wave speed:

<math> f = \frac{1}{P} = \frac{c}{\lambda} </math>

It is important to note that the speed of light waves does not depend on the frequency, wavelength or period, but only on the medium the wave is traveling through. However, contrary to other waves like sound or water waves, electromagnetic waves (light) do not actually require a medium to be transmitted through: they can travel through the vacuum. If light travels through a vacuum, it has the maximum possible speed –and this speed is the same for all frequencies of light.

== Sections of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ==

=== Infrared ===
Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at frequencies above those of microwaves and just below those of red visible light, hence the name "infrared."<ref Name="LiveScience"> Lucas, J. (2019, February 27). What Is Infrared? LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/50260-infrared-radiation.html. </ref> Similar to the visible light spectrum, which ranges from violet (the shortest visible-light wavelength) to red (longest wavelength), infrared radiation has its own range of wavelengths. The shorter "near-infrared" waves, which are closer to visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum, don't emit any detectable heat and are what's discharged from a TV remote control to change the channels. The longer "far-infrared" waves, which are closer to the microwave section on the electromagnetic spectrum, can be felt as intense heat, such as the heat from sunlight or fire. IR radiation is one of the three ways heat is transferred from one place to another, the other two being convection and conduction. Everything with a temperature above around 5 degrees Kelvin (minus 450 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 268 degrees Celsius) emits IR radiation. The sun gives off half of its total energy as IR, and much of the star's visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as IR.
[[File:Rainbow.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a prism separating white light into its colors]]

=== Visible Light ===
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve.<ref Name="HyperEM"> HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Infrared. Electromagnetic Spectrum. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ems3.html. </ref> In interactions with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy levels. White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism

=== Ultraviolet ===
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of uv inflammation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances absorb it strongly.

=== X-Rays ===
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones. We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements. X-rays produced in this way have have definite energies just like other line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.

In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

=== Gamma Rays ===
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation.

In interactions with matter, gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

== References ==
<references />

__NOTOC__
[[Category:Theory]]

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:25:15Z

Amarin32:

== Light as Waves ==
[[File:Spectrum.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of the electromagnetic spectrum]]
Physicists describe light as something called electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave <ref name="CESAR"> CESAR. (n.d.). The electromagnetic spectrum Cesar's Booklets. </ref>. The word radiation means ‘energy that is transported from one spot to another without need of direct contact between the two locations’. Light in each of these colors carries a different amount of energy: gamma rays are the most energetic, and radio is the least. Thus, when we observe gamma or X-rays from an astronomical object, we know that something really powerful is happening there. This energy is transported in the form of a wave, and each color is related to a different wave size: The more energy the wave carries, the narrower it is –or, in technical terms, the shorter its wavelength. Hence, X-rays have shorter wavelengths than visible-light waves, and visible light has shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

== Properties of Waves ==
[[File:Wave.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of a wave]]
A wave is a periodic perturbation from an undisturbed or rest state that is transmitted in space. The maximum deviation from this undisturbed state is called the amplitude of the wave, and is a measure of the intensity of the perturbation; the top of the wave is called a crest and the lowest state, a trough. Waves are characterized by their size, measured as the distance between two equal states; this distance is called the wavelength, <math> \lambda </math>. The colors of visible light are the way our eyes perceive the different wavelengths. The time it takes for the perturbation to move one wavelength –in other words, to repeat itself–, is called the period of the wave, <math> P </math>. Wavelength and period are related through the speed of the wave, <math> c </math> <math> (≈3*10^8 m/s) </math>, because speed is defined as space travelled per unit time:

<math> c = \frac{\lambda}{P} </math>

The number of complete cycles –the number of times the wave repeats itself– in one second is called the frequency of the wave, <math> f </math>. Thus, the frequency is the inverse of the period, and is also related to the wavelength through the wave speed:

<math> f = \frac{1}{P} = \frac{c}{\lambda} </math>

It is important to note that the speed of light waves does not depend on the frequency, wavelength or period, but only on the medium the wave is traveling through. However, contrary to other waves like sound or water waves, electromagnetic waves (light) do not actually require a medium to be transmitted through: they can travel through the vacuum. If light travels through a vacuum, it has the maximum possible speed –and this speed is the same for all frequencies of light.

== Sections of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ==

=== Infrared ===
Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at frequencies above those of microwaves and just below those of red visible light, hence the name "infrared."<ref Name="LiveScience" Lucas, J. (2019, February 27). What Is Infrared? LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/50260-infrared-radiation.html. </ref> Similar to the visible light spectrum, which ranges from violet (the shortest visible-light wavelength) to red (longest wavelength), infrared radiation has its own range of wavelengths. The shorter "near-infrared" waves, which are closer to visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum, don't emit any detectable heat and are what's discharged from a TV remote control to change the channels. The longer "far-infrared" waves, which are closer to the microwave section on the electromagnetic spectrum, can be felt as intense heat, such as the heat from sunlight or fire. IR radiation is one of the three ways heat is transferred from one place to another, the other two being convection and conduction. Everything with a temperature above around 5 degrees Kelvin (minus 450 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 268 degrees Celsius) emits IR radiation. The sun gives off half of its total energy as IR, and much of the star's visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as IR.
[[File:Rainbow.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a prism separating white light into its colors]]

=== Visible Light ===
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve.<ref Name="HyperEM"> HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Infrared. Electromagnetic Spectrum. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ems3.html. </ref> In interactions with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy levels. White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism

=== Ultraviolet ===
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of uv inflammation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances absorb it strongly.

=== X-Rays ===
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones. We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements. X-rays produced in this way have have definite energies just like other line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.

In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

=== Gamma Rays ===
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation.

In interactions with matter, gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

== References ==
<references />

__NOTOC__
[[Category:Theory]]

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:24:53Z

Amarin32:

== Light as Waves ==
[[File:Spectrum.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of the electromagnetic spectrum]]
Physicists describe light as something called electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave <ref name="CESAR"> CESAR. (n.d.). The electromagnetic spectrum Cesar's Booklets. </ref>. The word radiation means ‘energy that is transported from one spot to another without need of direct contact between the two locations’. Light in each of these colors carries a different amount of energy: gamma rays are the most energetic, and radio is the least. Thus, when we observe gamma or X-rays from an astronomical object, we know that something really powerful is happening there. This energy is transported in the form of a wave, and each color is related to a different wave size: The more energy the wave carries, the narrower it is –or, in technical terms, the shorter its wavelength. Hence, X-rays have shorter wavelengths than visible-light waves, and visible light has shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

== Properties of Waves ==
[[File:Wave.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of a wave]]
A wave is a periodic perturbation from an undisturbed or rest state that is transmitted in space. The maximum deviation from this undisturbed state is called the amplitude of the wave, and is a measure of the intensity of the perturbation; the top of the wave is called a crest and the lowest state, a trough. Waves are characterized by their size, measured as the distance between two equal states; this distance is called the wavelength, <math> \lambda </math>. The colors of visible light are the way our eyes perceive the different wavelengths. The time it takes for the perturbation to move one wavelength –in other words, to repeat itself–, is called the period of the wave, <math> P </math>. Wavelength and period are related through the speed of the wave, <math> c </math> <math> (≈3*10^8 m/s) </math>, because speed is defined as space travelled per unit time:

<math> c = \frac{\lambda}{P} </math>

The number of complete cycles –the number of times the wave repeats itself– in one second is called the frequency of the wave, <math> f </math>. Thus, the frequency is the inverse of the period, and is also related to the wavelength through the wave speed:

<math> f = \frac{1}{P} = \frac{c}{\lambda} </math>

It is important to note that the speed of light waves does not depend on the frequency, wavelength or period, but only on the medium the wave is traveling through. However, contrary to other waves like sound or water waves, electromagnetic waves (light) do not actually require a medium to be transmitted through: they can travel through the vacuum. If light travels through a vacuum, it has the maximum possible speed –and this speed is the same for all frequencies of light.

== Sections of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ==

=== Infrared ===
Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at frequencies above those of microwaves and just below those of red visible light, hence the name "infrared." Similar to the visible light spectrum, which ranges from violet (the shortest visible-light wavelength) to red (longest wavelength), infrared radiation has its own range of wavelengths. The shorter "near-infrared" waves, which are closer to visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum, don't emit any detectable heat and are what's discharged from a TV remote control to change the channels. The longer "far-infrared" waves, which are closer to the microwave section on the electromagnetic spectrum, can be felt as intense heat, such as the heat from sunlight or fire. IR radiation is one of the three ways heat is transferred from one place to another, the other two being convection and conduction. Everything with a temperature above around 5 degrees Kelvin (minus 450 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 268 degrees Celsius) emits IR radiation. The sun gives off half of its total energy as IR, and much of the star's visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as IR.
[[File:Rainbow.PNG|thumb|Diagram of a prism separating white light into its colors]]

=== Visible Light ===
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve.<ref Name="HyperEM"> HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Infrared. Electromagnetic Spectrum. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ems3.html. </ref> In interactions with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy levels. White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism

=== Ultraviolet ===
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of uv inflammation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances absorb it strongly.

=== X-Rays ===
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones. We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements. X-rays produced in this way have have definite energies just like other line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.

In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

=== Gamma Rays ===
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation.

In interactions with matter, gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

== References ==
<references />

__NOTOC__
[[Category:Theory]]

File:Rainbow.PNG

2021-07-02T14:22:06Z

Amarin32:

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:21:26Z

Amarin32:

== Light as Waves ==
[[File:Spectrum.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of the electromagnetic spectrum]]
Physicists describe light as something called electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave <ref name="CESAR"> CESAR. (n.d.). The electromagnetic spectrum Cesar's Booklets. </ref>. The word radiation means ‘energy that is transported from one spot to another without need of direct contact between the two locations’. Light in each of these colors carries a different amount of energy: gamma rays are the most energetic, and radio is the least. Thus, when we observe gamma or X-rays from an astronomical object, we know that something really powerful is happening there. This energy is transported in the form of a wave, and each color is related to a different wave size: The more energy the wave carries, the narrower it is –or, in technical terms, the shorter its wavelength. Hence, X-rays have shorter wavelengths than visible-light waves, and visible light has shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

== Properties of Waves ==
[[File:Wave.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of a wave]]
A wave is a periodic perturbation from an undisturbed or rest state that is transmitted in space. The maximum deviation from this undisturbed state is called the amplitude of the wave, and is a measure of the intensity of the perturbation; the top of the wave is called a crest and the lowest state, a trough. Waves are characterized by their size, measured as the distance between two equal states; this distance is called the wavelength, <math> \lambda </math>. The colors of visible light are the way our eyes perceive the different wavelengths. The time it takes for the perturbation to move one wavelength –in other words, to repeat itself–, is called the period of the wave, <math> P </math>. Wavelength and period are related through the speed of the wave, <math> c </math> <math> (≈3*10^8 m/s) </math>, because speed is defined as space travelled per unit time:

<math> c = \frac{\lambda}{P} </math>

The number of complete cycles –the number of times the wave repeats itself– in one second is called the frequency of the wave, <math> f </math>. Thus, the frequency is the inverse of the period, and is also related to the wavelength through the wave speed:

<math> f = \frac{1}{P} = \frac{c}{\lambda} </math>

It is important to note that the speed of light waves does not depend on the frequency, wavelength or period, but only on the medium the wave is traveling through. However, contrary to other waves like sound or water waves, electromagnetic waves (light) do not actually require a medium to be transmitted through: they can travel through the vacuum. If light travels through a vacuum, it has the maximum possible speed –and this speed is the same for all frequencies of light.

== Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ==

=== Infrared ===
Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at frequencies above those of microwaves and just below those of red visible light, hence the name "infrared." Similar to the visible light spectrum, which ranges from violet (the shortest visible-light wavelength) to red (longest wavelength), infrared radiation has its own range of wavelengths. The shorter "near-infrared" waves, which are closer to visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum, don't emit any detectable heat and are what's discharged from a TV remote control to change the channels. The longer "far-infrared" waves, which are closer to the microwave section on the electromagnetic spectrum, can be felt as intense heat, such as the heat from sunlight or fire. IR radiation is one of the three ways heat is transferred from one place to another, the other two being convection and conduction. Everything with a temperature above around 5 degrees Kelvin (minus 450 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 268 degrees Celsius) emits IR radiation. The sun gives off half of its total energy as IR, and much of the star's visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as IR.

=== Visible Light ===
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve.<ref Name="HyperEM"> HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Infrared. Electromagnetic Spectrum. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ems3.html. </ref> In interactions with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy levels. White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism

=== Ultraviolet ===
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendent to other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of uv inflamation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances absorb it strongly.

=== X-Rays ===
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones. We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements. X-rays produced in this way have have definite energies just like other line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.

In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

=== Gamma Rays ===
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation.

In interactions with matter, gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

== References ==
<references />

__NOTOC__
[[Category:Theory]]

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:20:18Z

Amarin32:

== Light as Waves ==
[[File:Spectrum.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of the electromagnetic spectrum]]
Physicists describe light as something called electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave <ref name="CESAR"> CESAR. (n.d.). The electromagnetic spectrum Cesar's Booklets. </ref>. The word radiation means ‘energy that is transported from one spot to another without need of direct contact between the two locations’. Light in each of these colors carries a different amount of energy: gamma rays are the most energetic, and radio is the least. Thus, when we observe gamma or X-rays from an astronomical object, we know that something really powerful is happening there. This energy is transported in the form of a wave, and each color is related to a different wave size: The more energy the wave carries, the narrower it is –or, in technical terms, the shorter its wavelength. Hence, X-rays have shorter wavelengths than visible-light waves, and visible light has shorter wavelengths than radio waves.

== Properties of Waves ==
[[File:Wave.PNG|thumb|500px|Properties of a wave]]
A wave is a periodic perturbation from an undisturbed or rest state that is transmitted in space. The maximum deviation from this undisturbed state is called the amplitude of the wave, and is a measure of the intensity of the perturbation; the top of the wave is called a crest and the lowest state, a trough. Waves are characterized by their size, measured as the distance between two equal states; this distance is called the wavelength, <math> \lambda </math>. The colors of visible light are the way our eyes perceive the different wavelengths. The time it takes for the perturbation to move one wavelength –in other words, to repeat itself–, is called the period of the wave, <math> P </math>. Wavelength and period are related through the speed of the wave, <math> c </math> <math> (≈3*10^8 m/s) </math>, because speed is defined as space travelled per unit time:

<math> c = \frac{\lambda}{P} </math>

The number of complete cycles –the number of times the wave repeats itself– in one second is called the frequency of the wave, <math> f </math>. Thus, the frequency is the inverse of the period, and is also related to the wavelength through the wave speed:

<math> f = \frac{1}{P} = \frac{c}{\lambda} </math>

It is important to note that the speed of light waves does not depend on the frequency, wavelength or period, but only on the medium the wave is traveling through. However, contrary to other waves like sound or water waves, electromagnetic waves (light) do not actually require a medium to be transmitted through: they can travel through the vacuum. If light travels through a vacuum, it has the maximum possible speed –and this speed is the same for all frequencies of light.

== Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ==

=== Infrared ===
Within the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared waves occur at frequencies above those of microwaves and just below those of red visible light, hence the name "infrared." Similar to the visible light spectrum, which ranges from violet (the shortest visible-light wavelength) to red (longest wavelength), infrared radiation has its own range of wavelengths. The shorter "near-infrared" waves, which are closer to visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum, don't emit any detectable heat and are what's discharged from a TV remote control to change the channels. The longer "far-infrared" waves, which are closer to the microwave section on the electromagnetic spectrum, can be felt as intense heat, such as the heat from sunlight or fire. IR radiation is one of the three ways heat is transferred from one place to another, the other two being convection and conduction. Everything with a temperature above around 5 degrees Kelvin (minus 450 degrees Fahrenheit or minus 268 degrees Celsius) emits IR radiation. The sun gives off half of its total energy as IR, and much of the star's visible light is absorbed and re-emitted as IR.

=== Visible Light ===
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve. In interactions with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy levels. White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism

=== Ultraviolet ===
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendent to other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another example of uv inflamation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances absorb it strongly.

=== X-Rays ===
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones. We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy elements. X-rays produced in this way have have definite energies just like other line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.

In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

=== Gamma Rays ===
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation.

In interactions with matter, gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.

== References ==
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[[Category:Theory]]

Electromagnetic Spectrum

2021-07-02T14:11:08Z

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